Breaking Style

Breaking Style Breaking Style Breaking Style By Mark Nichol DailyWritingTips.com readers frequently email a message or write a comment in which they disagree with me (usually but not always respectfully) about something I’ve written. Occasionally, a reader has misunderstood me. Now and then, I’ve been unclear or I’ve made a mistake. Sometimes, the issue is of a difference between the recommendations of one style guide and another. Regardless, sometimes readers tell me that they are going to do something their way regardless of the â€Å"rules.† Writing (and editing) is both an art and a science, and the guidelines about producing prose are somewhat amorphous, for various reasons. As I mentioned, there’s more than one kind of style: Some writing and editing guides call for serial commas (a, b, and c), for example, while others recommend omitting serial commas (a, b and c) unless they’re necessary for clarity. There’s also a degree of flexibility: Introductory phrases should generally be separated from the main clause of the sentence by a comma (for example, as in â€Å"When the council met again the next day, the mood was somber†), but short phrases are sometimes given a pass (for example, as in â€Å"In effect it acts like a catalyst†). In some cases, the flexibility is a matter of formality: Contractions (such as can’t in place of cannot) are rare in academic prose but ubiquitous in colloquial writing, for example, and both extremes are intrinsically valid. But one thing I always emphasize when readers disagree with my advice is this: If you are writing for your own pleasure, or if you self-publish (whether in print or online), you are the final authority and may choose which rules to follow and which to flout (though consider that, if you actually want other people to read what you write, with great power comes great responsibility). But if you intend for your writing to be mediated if you are submitting it for publication on a website, in a periodical, or in a book you are generally expected to abide with a set of guidelines about grammar, syntax, usage, punctuation, and other issues of style. Exceptions exist, of course and they’re called style breaks, because they break with the standards for style. For example, one book I copyedited was a second edition of a guide to herbs. The author had (erroneously, according to prevailing style) capitalized all the plant names and made other editorial decisions that I thought diminished the book’s authoritativeness, so I lowercased the names and made other style changes. When I received a complimentary copy of the published new edition from the publisher, I noticed that the plant names were capitalized, as before. Apparently, the author had felt strongly about retaining the capitalization and had asked that it be restored (or had done so himself while reviewing the edited manuscript). I should have queried the publisher’s project editor before making such a comprehensive editorial decision, but I am glad that the author did not name me on the acknowledgments page. The decision about whether to allow such profligate capitalization is for the publisher to make, but although most readers may not notice or are unlikely to realize or care that lowercase style is the norm for such usage it looks amateurish, especially when hundreds of references to dozens of herbs appear throughout the book. More recently, an editor for a company that publishes commemorative books for professional sports teams told me to honor a style break for references to sports scores when I edit manuscripts. Normally, a score is set off from the rest of the sentence, as in â€Å"The 49ers beat the Raiders, 28–21, before a sellout crowd,† but I was asked to preserve the omission of commas in such constructions. This type of change is innocuous and nearly invisible, and it happens often. The copy editor simply notes the deviation from the norm on a style sheet, a record of variations in spelling, punctuation, and the like, and other editors involved in the project note and preserve the style break. Feel free to break style in self-published writing or to request that deviations from style be honored when you submit content for publication. But in either case, have a good reason for doing so, or be prepared to accept with good grace a denial of your request. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Program vs. Programme55 Boxing Idioms"To Tide You Over"

Cognitive Dissonance Definition and Examples

Cognitive Dissonance Definition and Examples Psychologist Leon Festinger first described the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. According to Festinger,  cognitive dissonance  occurs when people’s thoughts and feelings are inconsistent with their behavior, which results in an uncomfortable, disharmonious feeling. Examples of such inconsistencies or dissonance could include someone who litters despite caring about the environment, someone who tells a lie despite valuing honesty, or someone who makes an extravagant purchase, but believes in frugality. Experiencing cognitive dissonance can lead people to try to reduce their feelings of discomfort - sometimes in surprising or unexpected ways. Because the experience of dissonance is so uncomfortable, people are highly motivated to try to reduce their dissonance. Festinger goes as far as to propose  that reducing dissonance is a fundamental need: a person who experiences dissonance will try to reduce this feeling in much the same way that a person who feels hungry is compelled to eat. According to psychologists, our actions are likely to produce a higher amount of dissonance if they involve the  way that we see ourselves and we subsequently have trouble justifying why our actions didn’t match our beliefs. For example, since individuals typically want to see themselves as ethical people, acting unethically would produce higher levels of dissonance. Imagine someone paid you $500 to tell a small lie to someone. The average person probably wouldn’t fault you for telling the lie- $500 is a lot of money and for most people would probably be enough to justify a relatively inconsequential lie. However, if you were paid only a couple of dollars, you might have more trouble justifying your lie, and feel less comfortable about doing so. How Cognitive Dissonance Affects Behavior In 1959, Festinger and his colleague James Carlsmith published an influential study showing that cognitive dissonance can affect behavior in unexpected ways. In this study, research participants were asked to spend an hour completing boring tasks (for example, repeatedly loading spools onto a tray). After the tasks were over, some of the participants were told that there were two versions of the study: in one (the version the participant had been in), the participant was not told anything about the study beforehand; in the other, the participant was told that the study was interesting and enjoyable. The researcher told the participant that the next study session was about to start, and that they needed someone to tell the next participant that the study would be enjoyable. They then asked the participant to tell the next participant that the study was interesting (which would have meant lying to the next participant, since the study had been designed to be boring). Some participants were offered $1 to do this, while others were offered $20 (since this study was conducted over 50 years ago, this would have been a lot of money to participants). In actuality, there was no â€Å"other version† of the study in which participants were led to believe the tasks were fun and interesting- when participants told the â€Å"other participant† that the study was fun, they were actually (unknown to them) speaking to a member of the research staff. Festinger and Carlsmith wanted to create a feeling of dissonance in participants- in this case, their belief (that lying should be avoided) is at odds with their action (they just lied to someone). After telling the lie, the crucial part of the study began. Another person (who appeared to not be part of the original study) then asked participants to report on how interesting the study actually was. Results of Festinger and Carlsmiths Study For participants who were not asked to lie, and for participants who lied in exchange for $20, they tended to report that the study indeed wasn’t very interesting. After all, participants who had told a lie for $20 felt that they could justify the lie because they were paid relatively well (in other words, receiving the large sum of money reduced their feelings of dissonance). However, participants who were only paid $1 had more trouble justifying their actions to themselves- they didn’t want to admit to themselves that they told a lie over such a small amount of money. Consequently, participants in this group ended up reducing the dissonance they felt another way- by reporting that the study had indeed been interesting. In other words, it appears that participants reduced the dissonance they felt by deciding that they hadn’t lied when they said the study was enjoyable and that they really had liked the study. Festinger and Carlsmith’s study has an important legacy: it suggests that, sometimes, when people are asked to act in a certain way, they may change their attitude to match the behavior they just engaged in. While we often think that our actions stem from our beliefs, Festinger and Carlsmith suggest that it can be the other way around: our actions can influence what we believe. Culture and Cognitive Dissonance In recent years, psychologists have pointed out that many psychology studies recruit participants from Western countries (North America and Europe) and that doing so neglects the experience of people who live in non-Western cultures. In fact, psychologists who study  cultural psychology  have found that many phenomena that were once assumed to be universal may actually be unique to Western countries. What about cognitive dissonance? Do people from non-Western cultures experience cognitive dissonance as well? Research seems to suggest that people from non-Western cultures do experience cognitive dissonance, but that the  contexts  that lead to feelings of dissonance might differ depending on cultural norms and values. For example, in a  study  conducted by Etsuko Hoshino-Browne and her colleagues, the researchers found that European Canadian participants experienced greater levels of dissonance when they made a decision for themselves, while Japanese participants were more likely to experience dissonance when they were responsible for making a decision for a friend. In other words, it seems that everyone does experience dissonance from time to time- but what causes dissonance for one person might not for someone else. Reducing Cognitive Dissonance According to  Festinger, we can work to reduce the dissonance we feel in several different ways. Changing Behavior One of the simplest ways to address dissonance is to change one’s behavior. For example,  Festinger explains  that a smoker might cope with the discrepancy between their knowledge (that smoking is bad) and their behavior (that they smoke) by quitting. Changing the Environment Sometimes people can reduce dissonance by changing things in their environment- in particular, in their social environment. For example, someone who smokes might surround themselves with other people who smoke instead of with people who have disapproving attitudes about cigarettes. In others words, people sometimes cope with feelings of dissonance by surrounding themselves in â€Å"echo chambers† where their opinions are supported and validated by others. Seeking Out New Information People can also address feelings of dissonance by processing information in a  biased way: they may look for new information that supports their current actions, and they might limit their exposure to information that would make them feel greater levels of dissonance. For example, a coffee drinker might look for research on the benefits of coffee drinking, and avoid reading studies that suggest coffee might have negative effects. Sources Festinger, Leon.  A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.  Stanford University Press, 1957.  https://books.google.com/books?isbn0804709114Festinger, Leon, and James M. Carlsmith. â€Å"Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance.†Ã‚  The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology  58.2 (1959): 203-210.  http://web.mit.edu/curhan/www/docs/Articles/15341_Readings/Motivation/Festinger_Carlsmith_1959_Cognitive_consequences_of_forced_compliance.pdfFiske, Susan T., and Shelley E. Taylor.  Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. McGraw-Hill, 2008.  https://books.google.com/books?id7qPUDAAAQBAJdqfisketaylorsocialcognitionlrGilovich, Thomas, Dacher Keltner, and Richard E. Nisbett.  Social Psychology. 1st edition, W.W. Norton Company, 2006.  https://books.google.com/books?isbn0393913236Hoshino-Browne, Etsuko, et al. â€Å"On the Cultural Guises of Cognitive Dissonance: The Case of Easterners and Westerners.†Ã‚  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  89.3 (2 005): 294-310.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7517343_On_the_Cultural_Guises_of_Cognitive_Dissonance_The_Case_of_Easterners_and_Westerners White, Lawrence. â€Å"Is Cognitive Dissonance Universal?†.  Psychology Today Blog  (2013, Jun. 28).  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/culture-conscious/201306/is-cognitive-dissonance-universal

Criminal Law and Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Criminal Law and Justice - Essay Example It is not always true that the accused may have committed the crime as reported by the complainant. Some rape cases have found the complainant to be guilty of accusing the defendant falsely. Most of the rape incidences are not committed by a single person. A gang may choose to commit the crime on a person or on a group of people. An example is a group of boys from West Auckland who called themselves ‘Roast Busters’. This group targeted teenage girls who they made drunk and afterwards gang-raped them (Ludovica 2014). With the rise of anonymity in rape cases, legislations have been put in place to protect both the complainant and the defendant. These laws help to maintain transparency in the judgment of the case and hence the charges are directed towards the party that is found to be guilty of committing the offence. This paper will look into details on the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 1976 Section 4 that was put in place in 1976. It will also provide for its weaknesses and strength of the legislation and will give a conclusion on the legislation and what amendment have been made to make it efficient. The Sexual Offence Amendment Act of 1976 not only provided for anonymity to complainant but also to the defendants. The aim of this act was to prevent stigmatization among the innocent defendants. It is not always true that those who reported sexual assault cases were sexually assaulted. Some lie for their own personal benefit. The aim of this act was to treat both the defendant and the complainant equally according to the laws. The provisions for this act were that once a person was found guilty to have committed a rape crime, his identity should not be published. Publication of the name, address and other material that belonged to the accused were prohibited from publication (Taylor 2014).The act also provided for conviction of people who published the

Process Design (Operation Management) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Process Design (Operation Management) - Essay Example The approach aimed at delivery of high quality, unique and uniform mix of prepared foods in a clean environment and cheerful courtesy. It is a face-to-face kind of delivery but the employee never touches the product but only delivers to the customer (Khanna, 2007). In the self-service approach, the company involves customers in the production of services. This is done to improve the efficiency and quality of services provided by the institution. This enhances customer service delivery satisfaction and appreciation of the company’s services (Mottershead, & Woods, 2003). This kind of approach also reduces time taken in the delivery of services and allows the company to concentrate on effective and efficient delivery of services (Mottershead, & Woods, 2003). In the food service, customers can order for desired type of food through the company website and they can be delivered as per the customer requirements and on time. Customers can also pay for their specific orders online and file complaints to the company. Through this approach, the organization will be able to tackle addressed problems as well as enabling customer satisfaction(Mottershead, & Woods, 2003). Another method commonly used by companies is personal attention approach. This approach is aimed at developing a positive relationship between individual sales men and customers. A good example of this kind of approach is the kind of service offered in hotels (Khanna, 2007). This allows for customer loyalty in service delivery and to the company. Since employees contact the customers directly, service delivery is efficient (Khanna, 2007). It is also easier for the customers to express their dissatisfaction or gratitude to the organization. The employees also come familiar with the customers’ tastes and preferences and delivery of services will be efficient since they know what customers need. Hotels with this type of approach even go to the extent of sending birthday cards or

Youth Justice And The Medias Society Criminology Essay

Youth Justice And The Medias Society Criminology Essay This essay will start by highlighting how the media may shape societys response to young people who break the law through the moral panic model. The medias role will be outlined and youth crime data summarised. The urban disturbances of the early 1990s and the death of James Bulger will both be discussed in turn. In both cases a description of the event will be followed by an outline of the media response, identifying elements typical within the moral panic model. An attempt will be made to understand the reaction of society to media representations associated with young law breakers. Finally, in each case the action undertaken by the agents of control will be examined. This essay will attempt to construct arguments challenging this model throughout, and suggest that moral panics may also have sources within societys elite through hegemony. It is acknowledged that arguments surrounding hegemony may link in to the groundbreaking youth justice legislation of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, introduced after the period discussed in this essay. The impact of this legislation is acknowledged, however for the purposes of the media and societys response to young people who break the law it will not be discussed. The Moral Panic A moral panic may be outlined as the identification of a threat, for example to social values. This threat is simplified by the media with distorted representation resulting in raised social anxiety. Agents of control respond, resulting in either the panic diminishing or social changes taking place (Thompson cited in Newburn 2007 p95). The deviancy amplification cycle describes how heightened deviance may be attributed to stigma arising from media exaggeration or the treatment from agents of control (Brown 2005, Cohen 2002). Young highlights how this may quickly create problems through exaggerating an outsider lifestyle (Young cited in Kidd-Hewitt 2002 p119). Although studied by Jock Young in 1971 (Kidd-Hewitt 2002), Stanley Cohens Folk Devils and Moral Panics (1972) was described as the first systematic empirical study of a moral panic in Britain (Muncie 2004 p119). Cohens study of Mods and Rockers in Clacton during the Easter bank holiday in 1964 argued a clear relationship between young law breakers, the media, the general public and the police. Cohens work may be associated with Tannenbaums labelling and Lemerts primary and secondary deviance, all with origins in Mead and Cooleys symbolic interactionism (Newburn 2007). The media have constructed and processed information and ideas regarding deviancy since the industrial age, meaning society usually experience this commercially and politically constrained representation of deviance second hand (Cohen 2003). Hall et al (1978) explain how the media may have an assumed objectivity and frequently communicate an assumed social consensus, but they often have structured access to elite interests or primary definers, and reproduce their biased message. Cohen outlines elements which may appear in the media as stereotyping and stigmatising, a moral emphasis, and the requirement for further action. Information may be exaggerated and the use of symbols may be apparent with deviance represented through identifiable items such as clothing (Cohen 2002). Attitudes that may arise in a moral panic include the perception a disaster has occurred, the prophecy of doom (Cohen 2002 p38) where it is perceived events will happen again, and how at the height of a moral panic other unrelated events may be presented as connected. Perceived origins of a panic may include behaviour being likened to a disease, spreading and infecting. Nostalgia may appear along with disillusionment at the way things have become, impulsive activities may be described as premeditated, and behaviours may be perceived as newly developed (Cohen 2002). Youth Crime The ability of the media to influence public views of youth crime (Allen 2004 cited in Smith 2007) is evident through a rise in crime perceived by the majority of individuals who cited the media as a key information source (Hough and Roberts 2004). This is illustrated by 89 per cent of offenders known to the police being over the age of 18 yet nearly a third of survey respondent attributed most crime to children (Smith 2007). It is also suggested respondents perceived an exaggerated risk of being a crime victim (Goldson 2002 p391). It is advised that crime data should be treated with caution because an exact figure of occurrences does not exist (Tierney 2006). 20 per cent of the 5.4 million recorded crimes in 2006/07 were attributed to 10 to 17 year olds (Newburn 2007, Nicholas et al 2007) and approximately 80,000 crimes per annum are accountable to other agencies. These figures are not included in official crime data, along with 40 per cent of police reported crimes (Maguire 2002). Youth crime declined overall between 1985 and 1993 (Newburn 2002 cited in France) with relative consistency between 1993 and 2000 (Flood-Page et al 2000 cited in France). Offender and victim surveys highlight crimes not included in official data the dark figure (Newburn 2007) with estimated rates varying from eleven times more crime occurrences (Sparks et al 1977 cited in Tierney 2006) to a figure 39 times greater (Farrington et al 2006). Some crimes frequently undertaken by children have a smaller dark figure meaning proportionately more youth crime may be included in crime data. Crimes associated with younger people have estimated occurrences per actual conviction of six times for burglary, 77 for shoplifting and 132 for assault. Crimes associated with older offenders have rates of 809 occurrences per conviction for fraud, and 1463 for thefts from work (Farrington et al 2006). Early 1990s Urban Disturbances During the 1970s ideas surrounding the majority of crime being committed by a minority of individuals emerged from the Magistrates Association (Muncie 2004) and strategies during the 1980s were partly responsible for a reduction in youth crime (Pitts 2001). This increased sharply in the early 1990s by 111 per cent (Pitts 2001) and the Criminal Justice Act 1991 introduced an increasingly desert based sentencing policy, limiting the ability to consider previous crimes (Thomas 2003). From mid 1991 urban youth disturbances emerged from Cardiff, Oxford and in Newcastle notably on the Meadowell Estate where two young car thieves died in a police chase (Newburn 2007). These disturbances involved car related crime and resulted in conflict primarily between male youth and the police, and resulting in many arrests (Brown 2005). Individual younger children, identified by pseudonyms also appeared to be participating in unrelated activities such as domestic burglary Wykes (2001) argues that the poverty, substance misuse and lack of opportunity particularly experienced by the socially excluded Meadowell youth was largely ignored by the media. This supports Jewkes argument that the juvenile cultural resistance suggested by Cohens model may be exaggerated as a primary source of continued deviance (cited in Newburn 2007). The Media Exaggerated and distorted communication may have shaped societys perception of the level and type of offending being based on emotive, ambiguous and inaccurate information from the police and media (Garland cited in Goldson 2002). Labelling and stereotyping claimed hardcore child super crooks were responsible for 90 per cent of offences and were the number one crime problem (Daily Star, 30 November 1992 cited in Muncie 2004 p28). Reporting restrictions led to the identification of younger deviants through pseudonyms such as Ratboy, Homing Pigeon Boy, Spider Boy and The Terror Triplets (Muncie 2004). Deviant activities were distorted describing joyriding, ram raiding, and hotting (Muncie 2004) with frequent use of the term riot argued by Brown (2005) to be indicative of a moral panic. The graphic representation of deviance and the macho urban male youth stunt driving (Brown 2005 p59) supports McRobbie and Thorntons (2002) argument that moral panics may be entertaining. Moralising was also apparent with depictions of defiant youth as a ten year old in an SAS mask swaggered free from court resulting in calls for further action (Brown 2005 p60), although it is argued that a moral factor may not always be evident in a moral panic (Jewkes 2004 cited in Newburn 2007). The Terror Triplets illustrate the nature of the press coverage. The triplets were not persistent offenders with one previous conviction between them, and they all experienced health issues ranging from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to epilepsy and a speech impediment with their education described in court as inadequate (guardian.co.uk 2002). Societys Reaction One panic surrounded the serious persistent young offender, frequently termed bail bandits (Brown 2005 p61) which failed to recognise that persistent offenders usually engage in petty crime, many are vulnerable children who are neglected or abused, with mental health and education issues (Muncie 2004). Vague and imprecise descriptions of youth deviance were highlighted by the police and media on an increasing basis with this lack of distinction fuelling social anxiety regarding the level and type of juvenile offending taking place (Garland cited in Goldson 2002). The inability of the criminal justice system to deal with youth crime was also a source of concern with Ratboy, who had accrued 55 offences between the ages of ten and 14, symbolising the inability for law and order to be maintained (Muncie 2004 p28). Despite decarceration and diversion reducing known juvenile offending in the 1980s, it was increasingly believed penal liberalism had gone too far (Goldson 2002 p390). Fiction increasingly replaced factual and rational information to conjure up monsters that seem to lurk behind the gloss and glitter of everyday life (Pratt 2000 cited in Goldson 2002 p390). Brown (2005) argues the moral panic had mutated into a total panic about the majority of young peoples lives, making the suggestion that Cohens model may provide an insufficient explanation. Childhood was considered to be in crisis, and as with Cohens prophecy of doom (2002 p38) idea, further deviance was expected (Pratt 2000 cited in Goldson 2002). Jewkes (cited in Newburn 2007) argues that the cohesiveness of societys reaction may be overstated in Cohens moral panic model. McRobbie and Thornton (2002) agree, noting how audiences may be sophisticated, understanding varying styles of interpretation which may fragment messages further, such as the ironic in-house publishing style in the Sun newspaper. Increased sources of information since the early 1990s such as the internet may cause further fragmentation. Agents of Control The extensive coverage escalated concerns prompting a Home Affairs Committee in July 1992 to consider youth crime, persistent young offenders and the youth justice system (HAC 1993 cited in Muncie 2004). It was concluded that an increasing minority of young offenders were committing a high volume of offences, despite a lack of evidence (Farrington 2002) and the idea of a persistent group being arbitrary (Hagell Newburn in Muncie 2004). Smith argues that the government responded through introducing the Aggravated Vehicle-Taking Act 1992, which was imprisonable for five years (Home Affairs Committee 1993; Childrens Society 1993 cited in Smith 2007, Brown 2005), later increased to 14 years in the Criminal Justice Act 2003 (statutelaw.gov.uk 2008). Hegemony Brown agrees with Cohens suggestion that the agents of control have no choice but to respond in their socially sanctioned manner suggesting that high media coverage prompted the police action towards joyriding which had been occurring for some time (Brown 2005). The elite-engineered moral panic model provides an alternative explanation, describing how societys powerful elite may be the source (Goode and Ben-Yehuda cited in Newburn 2007). Marxist philosopher Gramsci explains such activity through hegemony, something Hall et all include in their model of the moral panic (Hall et al 1978) and something Smith (2007) cites as significant. Hegemony describes the persuasive communication of a societal consensus of belief systems through the media, gaining legitimacy for elite actions (Althusser 1977 and Cohen 1985 cited in Smith 2007, Smith 2007, Brown 2005). Prior to the Aggravated Vehicle-Taking Act 1992 The Lord Chief Justice and the Magistrates Association were overtly discontent with political interference and the limited capacity to increase sentences the Criminal Justice Act 1991. A sophisticated campaign (Smith 2007 p25) during 1991 by powerful members of the police also emerged relating to persistent young offenders, argued to have resulted in a media moral panic (Brown 2005, Downes and Morgan 2002). The Death of James Bulger In February 1993 the well documented abduction of two year James Bulger by ten year olds Robert Thompson and John Venables occurred. Taken from a shopping centre, the boys walked for two miles to a railway track where James was attacked and murdered (Muncie 2004, Brown 2005, Smith 2007). Following nine months custody and a month long trial the boys were found guilty of the murder (Morrison 1997). The boys are now living under assumed identities, understood to be outside of the UK. 27 murders of children by children have occurred in the last 250 years (Muncie 2004) with four 10-13 year olds convicted of murder between 1979 and 1992 (Cavadino 1996). Children are considered to be at greater risk from people who know to them (Morrison 1997) highlighted by sexual abuse and torture of James Bulger which it was argued suggested indicated the sexual abuse and torture experienced by at least one of attackers (Sereny 1996). The Media The hostile and sensationalist approach to this case contrasted sharply with a similar Norwegian case which was treated as a tragic accident (Muncie 2004 p6) and a similar case from Stockport in 1861 where rehabilitation was the ultimate public response. Exaggerated and irrational labelling stigmatised the boys as spawn of satan, freaks of nature, and monsters (Muncie 2004 p4). Sereny (1996) argues that the response to the boys as innately evil highlights how insufficiently it was attempted to understand issues in their lives, with which Morrison agrees (1997). A consensus regarding a new type of deviance was evident as we will never be able to look at our children in the same way again. Concerns of reoccurrence were evident with parents everywhere are asking themselves and their friends if the Mark of the Beast might not also be imprinted on their offspring (Sunday Times cited in Muncie 2004 p4) advising For Goodness Sake Hold Tight To Your Kids (Sun 16 February 1993 cited in Mason 2003 p197). Blurring of the boundary between the media and the audience (McRobbie Thornton 2002) may be seen with the widely broadcast CCTV footage of James Bulger in a shopping centre with his assailants. The Bulger family created a petition in conjunction with the Sun newspaper and a television phone in of nearly 300,000 names demanding Thompson and Venables never to be released (Morrison 1997). Retributive comments broadcast on television included James father Ralph stating one day theyll be out of jail and Ill be waiting for them and Jamess uncle Jim threatening when we get hold of them, we will fucking kill them (Morrison p234). McRobbie and Thornton (2002) also explore the idea of pressure groups or the folk devils themselves blurring this boundary further and widening the debate by either appearing in or producing their own media, although this is not evident in this case. By 1995 young people were being represented as the savage generation (The Sunday Times 5 February 1995 cited in Kidd-Hewitt 2002 p117). Cohens its not only this (Cohen 2002 p39) idea was evident through frequent and omnipresent panics which blamed the breakdown of the family, the availability of drugs and the crimogenic media (Kidd-Hewitt 2002, Thornton cited in Newburn 2007). McRobbie and Thornton (2002) argue unlike the novelty described in Cohens model, this has become a basic media response. Society Despite this crimes unusualness, societal anxiety increased surrounding both the governments capacity to control the crimogenic capacity of younger children, and the protection of younger children (Pitt 2001, Muncie 2004, Brown 2005). Crime data suggests a trend of younger childrens involvement in crime through a fall in the peak age of offending, but this is also accompanied by earlier desistance (Criminal Statistics 1995 cited in Coleman 1997, Criminal Statistics 2005 cited in Coleman Schofield 2007). Adult perceptions regarding age-appropriate behaviour were challenged (Brown 2005) and with childhood on trial (James Jenks cited in Muncie 2004 p4) innocence shifted to potential evil and hate (Muncie Hughes 2002). It is also argued that resulting public and legal attitudes towards children have become more punitive as a result of this case (Hendrick 2002 p39) with misrepresentations fuelling harsher measures (Smith 2007). The well established panic surrounding crimogenic media also emerged (Brown 2005), a youth culture anxiety as seen as early as 1917 when the deteriorating influence of cinema was highlighted (Russell cited in Pearson 1983). In the Bulger case the film Childs Play 3 was the subject of this panic despite evidence in court suggesting this film had not been viewed by the boys (Morrison 1997). Brown (2005) argues that the films character Chucky who physically represented a child but behaviourally represented an adult was used as a symbol of the challenge to age-appropriate behaviour. More tenuous associations include the use of batteries in James Bulgers attack (Morrison 1997). Agents of Control It is argued that doli incapax (incapable of crime) where it must be proven that a child understands right and wrong was reviewed for ten to thirteen year olds in response to this case. Although the principle was initially retained it was later revoked in the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (Bandalli 2000 cited in Gelsthorpe Morris 2002). Despite protection under the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child (UNCRC) mental health provision was limited during the boys nine months in custody and minimal allowance was made for their age with the trial in an adult court and their identities exposed to the international media, argued to have heightened the campaign of hate (Scraton Haydon 2002 p313). Upon release Dame Butler-Sloss favoured the 1998 Human Rights Act over freedom of expression, granting anonymity to Thompson and Venables for the risk of retributive injury or death (cited in Scraton Haydon 2002). The UK government breached articles relating to a fair trial, fixing sentence and periodic review of sentence in the European Convention of Human Rights (Muncie 2004, Scraton Haydon 2002). The sentence had already been increased from eight years to ten by the Lord Chief Justice. Final sentencing authority rested with Michael Howard (Sereny 1996) who increased it for a second time to 15 years, citing public concern and the Bulger petition (Morrison 1997). This illustrates Cohens argument that sometimes agents of control have to act. Once overturned, the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 removed the capacity for the Home Secretary to intervene in sentencing decisions (Muncie 2004). With crime becoming second only to unemployment on the agenda (Pitts 2001), the intention to incarcerate 12 to 14 year olds through secure training units and secure training orders was announced, ten days after James Bulgers death and only months after ending custody for 14 year olds in the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Smith 2007). More punitive measures were introduced in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 where the maximum sentence for fifteen to seventeen year olds doubled to two years (Newburn 2002). Hegemony The end of the bi-partisan consensus on crime was apparent in the 1970 Conservative Party manifesto (Pitts 2001) with punitive rhetoric becoming associated with political success (Smith 2007). By the 1992 general election a return to bi-partisanship was argued in the form of being tough on crime as a means to political victory (Downes Morgan 2002). Following Labours 1992 defeat policies were transferred from the reinvented and electorally successful Democrats (Pitts 2001) argued to have rescued the Labour Party from perpetual opposition (Pitts 2001 p18, Hudson Lowe 2004) which included a punitive approach towards crime. This was evident the month before James Bulgers death when the Shadow Home Secretary, Tony Blair declared how New Labour were tough on crime, tough on causes of crime (cited in Pitts 2001 p19). Political posturing is argued to have become part of youth justice continuing throughout the 1990s with Labours new approach suggested to have heightened Conservative government punitiveness. It is argued that rather than being a catalyst for policy change, the murder of James Bulger may have accelerated the punitive turn. The abolition of doli incapax may be associated with this event but it is argued that events prior to James Bulgers death were already influencing youth justice policy (Smith 2007). The tone of political communication highlights the argued political exploitation of youth fear with labels like vermin (Goldson 2002 p392). John Major illustrated an assumed punitive consensus (Hall et al 1978), saying how society needs to condemn a little more and understand a little less and Kenneth Clarke called for increased court powers, emphasising hostility towards really persistent, nasty little juveniles (Smith 2007 p25). McRobbie and Thornton argue hegemony is overstated due to the potential plurality of reactions (2004 p72), something Jewkes also points out, describing how public and media cohesion is overstated (cited in Newburn 2007 p100), although it is noted that fragmented hegemonic activity may be seen, for example with Thatcherism and the Daily Mail (McRobbie Thornton 2004). Following on from the deviance amplification model, it may be argued that in some cases governments may increase deviancy through the interventions they initiate (Brown 2005). Conclusion It has been suggested that the media is powerful in shaping societys response to young people who break the law, being a primary information source. One of the ways in which the media shapes societys response is by creating the impression that youth crime is more widespread that really is the case. The problems that some deviant youth experience are grossly under represented such as the health issues of The Terror Triplets and the potential that at least one of James Bulgers attackers may have also been a ten year old victim of sexual abuse. Problems also include the failure to circulate general information such as the dark figure of crime for fraud, the adult age of most known offenders or a fall in the peak offending age. The simplified and exaggerated way in which youth are represented is argued to cause widespread societal panic and irrational fears, for example the anticipation of similar repeat activity in the case of rare crimes such as the murder of James Bulger. Explanations for the activity such as its not only this may feed the panic, resulting in greater fears about unrelated factors and in the case of the early 1990s lead to a total panic about youth. Authority action may be influenced by the public interest generated by a moral panic, and in the case of hegemony societys response to the media may be the provision of consent for authority action. It was argued that moral panics also have the potential to be entertaining and do not always include moralising. The cohesiveness of response to a moral panic may be overstated with the plurality of media highlighted. The idea of a total panic about youth was considered and the blurring of boundaries illustrated as having the potential to diffuse anxieties through debate widening, or heighten concerns and inform state action, as with the petition in the Bulger case. In conclusion, evidence may support the model described by Cohen, it is suggested however that other perspectives highlight that the way in which the media and society interact with respect to young people who break the law is more complex.

Do curfews keep teens out of trouble Essay

Should people take more responsibility for solving problems that affect their communities or the nation in general? I feel like people should take responsibility for solving problems in their community because you could make a difference in your community and help someone in your little community. Like if you do it nationwide, you probably could help someone but not everyone. In a community you could help just about anyone. Like creating little businesses to give jobs and little community get together. I honestly think its way better to help a community; because if you don’t have a community how will you have a nation? You need a community to even form in to a nation. Like what if no one took responsibility in the communities and went straight to the nation? Like that wouldn’t be good. I mean it’s not bad but it’s leaving the little communities out. Like who would be there if someone’s house gets robbed? Who will put a stop to it? Who will take char ge and find the criminal? The nation has more problems than worrying about a little community break in. that’s how I see it. Like who would be there to even pick up the trash in front of your house on the normal day? The nation would even know about that problem. I think the government needs to have at least 1 person checking up on EVERY community just to make sure if they are alright. Secondly, creating a little business to create new jobs for the community would be such a great idea. Those people could be helping out so many families in that could be in need of money. The government should donate money to some communities that really needs it. The government takes a lot of peoples taxes so why not donate some to money to needy communities? I feel as if the government doesn’t help people at all only like the big problems. I feel like people should take responsibility for solving problems in their community because you could make a difference in your community and help someone in your little community. Like if you do it nationwide, you probably could help someone but not everyone. In a community you could help just about anyone. Like creating little businesses to give jobs and little commu nity get together. So people should take responsibility in their communities. Prev Page

Slavery Speech Sample Essay - 1083 Words

Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience to donate to my charity, Love146. Central Idea: Love146 is the most deserving charity because of the work they are doing around the world to stop child sex slavery. Give Love146 Introduction: I. (Attention-getting device): She was only a number in a room of girls, but her eyes stared through the two-way glass and into the rescuer’s soul. When they returned to raid the place, 146 had already been sold, or killed, but she’s what they’re fighting to save. II. (Central Idea): Love146 is the most deserving charity because of the work they are doing around the world to stop child sex slavery. III. You may not like that you had to clean your room, or move to another town or†¦show more content†¦ii. American University said that child slave trade is a $7 billion dollar a year industry, made mostly from deplorable living conditions under which they keep the children, more money going to make-up, condoms and clothing than to keep children healthy and alive. Transition: Now that we have discussed the need for help, let me tell you what you can do. II. (Satisfaction): Donate to causes that are freeing children from slavery and helping them readjust and rehabilitate to an otherwise happy existence, like Love146. A) Love146 has a three-fold process for dealing with children sold into slavery. i. First, according to their website, they rehabilitate these girls and boys who worked as slaves, most often as prostitutes. They build safe homes for the children in which they can perform aftercare, making them feel safe and secure as they fight some of the lingering effects of their enslavement. ii Secondly, they work to prevent children from being sold into slavery. They try to alleviate the economic factors that tend to make times so desperate for parents that they sell their children in order to feed themselves. iii. Thirdly, they focus on research. That research helps them stay on top of trends that lead to slavery in order to aid in prevention. They look at economic reasons, natural disasters and worldwideShow MoreRelatedThomas Paine And The Bill Of Rights880 Words   |  4 Pagesthe public on the occasion of him speaking out about his beliefs. The first pamphlet he published, persuading liberation from Britain, was called Common Sense. Paine believed that America needed to break free of the British controls. He was against slavery and joined the military to help fight the war. Paine was very conscious of his criticizers, and worked very hard to influence them toward his way of thinking. 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