Skies over MacGregor

Skies over MacGregor This summer Random Hall was under construction. When I was in town I spent a lot of my time in MacGregor, which is where Cory was living for the summer. Specifically, he lived in B entry, which consists of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth floors of the high rise and is broken up into half-floor suites. B entry has a common entry lounge on the eleventh floor, with colossal windows on two of the walls, and we also had a suite lounge on the tenth floor a few doors down from Cory’s room. The suite lounge was almost always empty. It became our personal study the size of two rooms with a window the width of the wall and a view of campus and the Charles River and the sky above them. Imagine coffee and dinner in the lounge, red buildings and a grey sky stretched across the wall. Summer in Boston is miserable in some ways but it is beautiful. The air is hot and dense with humidity and dust. MacGregor is like a brick oven with tiny slits where the windows open. Again, the views are beautiful. I tried to take photos when I was in town, starting with some evenings between July 3rd and July 9th. Rollover for the time the photo was taken and click for larger versions. The first panorama has labels, just in case you’re unfamiliar with campus and need to orient yourself.     The evening of July 9th I took photos on the way back from tooling on campus in our favorite classroom in building four.   The next morning it rained, and it kept raining. July 10th through the morning of July 14th:         On July 14th I woke up early. It was a Sunday and there was a thick fog and a breeze coming off the river. Campus was pleasantly spooky.       Below are the evening of the 14th through the 19th, and finally my last sunrise in MacGregor on August 15th, from the entry lounge, the morning before they let us back into Random.     As a bonus, here is the melody and vista of a fire alarm at Simmons, from 400 feet away in Cory’s room in MacGregor, just in case you were especially excited for MIT’s fire alarms. Post Tagged #MacGregor House

Eriksons Psycho-social Stages, Analyzes of Articles Concerning Cognitive, Developmental Processes of Children Free Essay Example, 3250 words

The stages include Basic-trust-versus-mistrust, autonomous-versus-shame-and-doubt, initiative-versus-guilt, industry-versus-inferiority, intimacy-versus-isolation, identity-versus-role-confusion, generation-versus-stagnation, intimacy-versus-isolation and ego-integrity-versus-despair. Childhood falls in the first four stages. On the other hand, adolescents fall in the fifth stage while adulthood falls in the subsequent stages. In this classification approach, child hood ranges from birth to 11years. In the subsequent stages, ages do not significantly matter (Laura 2007). This paper explores the concept of western society pertaining to babyhood. It also identifies cognitive, social, physical and emotional characteristics that distinguish childhood from babyhood. It goes further to examine and critique some of the recent articles that touch on cognitive, developmental processes. In each case, it gives a review of the article followed by linking them by an article by Erikson. An Articl e by Gerhardt How affection shapes a baby s brain . In his article (How affection shapes a baby s brain), Gerhardt discovered that, during babyhood, the love and attention that a child receives determines his brain development. He argued out that whenever one finds himself being cared for by those people who are sensitive towards his personality and love him, his social brain development is likely to be triggered by these relationships. We will write a custom essay sample on Eriksons Psycho-social Stages, Analyzes of Articles Concerning Cognitive, Developmental Processes of Children or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page

International Division of Labor Equal Distribution of...

International division of labor can raises the incomes in depressed areas of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and achieve a more equal distribution of income in the world. However, it cause many hardship in the immigration areas as it is not practical on a large scale. This problem can be solved by industrialization with prerequisite that the industrialization takes place in a large area in order to achieve the most optimal result. Basically, there are 2 ways of industrialization. The first way is own industrialization based on the â€Å"Russian Model† which do not have international investment. This approach build up all stages of industry such as light industry and heavy industry. At the end, the economy will built like a vertical industrial†¦show more content†¦However, this method does not work well because the training workers may work for other firms after the training. Yet, this method is a good method from the point of view of the State because the social marginal net product is substantial than the private marginal net product. Besides, this method is costly and considered as capital investment. However, these are not the main factors in favor of this huge investment. In fact, the interdependent of different industries is the most important reason. Whole system of industries contribute more to the world output if compared to one industry only. Interdependent system also reduces the possibility of low sales and hence decrease the costs. This is a different case of â€Å"external economies†. There are 2 others types of â€Å"external economies†. The first one is the strictly Marshallian economies external to a firm within a growing industry. The second type is economies external to one industry because of the growth of other industries. The present institutions of investments do not have the benefit of external economies. There is no incentive for them to invest in investment which has high return in â€Å"social marginal net product†. In contrast, the key factor of investment is the profitable prospect of the investment. If the industrialization of international depressed area totally depend on the incentive of the entrepreneurs, industrialization will not proceed gradually. In fact, investment willShow MoreRelatedGlobal Inequality And Its Impact On The World s Population1429 Words   |  6 Pagesthe radically uneven distribution of income. When this problem extends to globalization, it is heavily ambiguous in terms of its long-term implications, sociall y and politically as well. When one explores the fascinating limits of globalization, it is possible to consider why many in the world’s population have various reservations about its real outreach on a worldwide scale. When considering the reach of globalization and its increasingly apparent correlation with income inequality at–large,Read MoreThe Multifaceted State Of South Africa Underwent Vast Reconstruction1518 Words   |  7 Pagesexperienced transformative changes in the racial, economic and societal relations of the region. Aside from the divisions and devastations the country faced as a result of apartheid the country also opened its economy to international business, deregulating major sectors of its economy and engaging in trade liberalization policies in an attempt to spur economic growth and international trade (Schreiner, Mohapi Koppen, 2004). The positive economic development that was expected as a result of theseRead MoreThe Issue Of South Africa1714 Words   |  7 Pagesconcept behind apartheid emerged in 1948 when the nationalist party took over government, and the all-white government enforced â€Å"racial segregation under a system of legislation† . The central issues stem from 50 years of apartheid include poverty, income inequality, land ownership rates and many other long term affects that still plague the brunt of the South African population while the small white minority still enjoy much of the wealth, most of the land and opportunities still remain largely unavailableRead MoreIncome Inequality Among Developing Countries Essay1892 Words   |  8 PagesIncome Inequality Among Developing Countries and Their Relations To The Affluent World On September 25th of 2015, the United Nations adopted a comprehensive initiative to combat a wide variety of global health issues that currently plague humanity. The initiative, entitled â€Å"UN Sustainable Development Goals† includes a list of seventeen goals to be achieved over the next fifteen years and encompasses measures to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. This paper intendsRead MoreGender Equality And Empowerment Of Women1562 Words   |  7 Pages Going along with that the media can possibly play a huge role in the sense of reaching out for awareness of this specific issue, while emphasizing intervention and the need for creation of policies that can assist women in their equal opportunity to earn higher income so that the wage gap can be closed. Theory and assumptions ``The story hasn`t changed; the numbers are worse now,`` said Pearce, director of research for the Center for National Policy Review in Washington. ``The `feminization ofRead MoreFinancial Aspects of Wal-Mart Corporation1080 Words   |  5 Pages2005 to February 2009, Mike served as vice chairman of the company, with responsibility for Wal-Mart International. As CEO, Mike leads a strong management team that is focused on keeping Wal-Mart’s mission of â€Å"saving people money so they can live better† relevant to every customer, every day. Since joining Wal-Mart in 1995, Mike has led the logistics, distribution and administration divisions as well as Wal-Mart U.S. As vice chairman, Mike was actively involved in developing and executing corporateRead MoreUnderstanding Capitalism And The Need For Government Intervention2114 Words   |  9 PagesWendy Diep International Political Economy Essay #1 October 20, 2014 Understanding Capitalism and the Need for Government Intervention In today’s capitalistic society, â€Å"liberal† and â€Å"conservative† are common terms we use to classify a political party, candidate, or even ourselves. But what does this mean? Choosing to identify as a liberal or conservative has a lot to do with what one believes is the appropriate level of government intervention in terms of the economy. Liberals believe it is theRead MoreSocial Reproduction Theory And The American Education System1224 Words   |  5 Pages Social reproduction theory is important and relevant to society because it challenges an institution that we have been socialized to honor and protect. In America, we believe that we have equal opportunities to succeed by educating ourselves in the school system. However, our social class and identity dictate how much access we have to those very opportunities that can lead to success. By examining this theory of social reproduction, we can further understand the roles that culture and social classRead MoreLiberalism Is The Root Of Our American Soil Essay1217 Words   |  5 Pagesto achieve equal opportunity and equalities for every individual in our society. The government’s duty presented here is to â€Å"alleviate social ills, to protect civil liberties, and protect individuals and human rights.† The government’s crucial role in a liberalistic society is to guarantee that no one is in need, and that liberal policies stress the need for the government to solv e problems. From an egalitarian sense, liberalism focuses on attaining more equal distributions of income and well-beingRead MoreIndustrial Location Theory As Defined By German Economist Alfred Weber1506 Words   |  7 Pagesconnector. All the while, this transportation development will create a greater population distribution to the San Diego periphery cities and thus a larger demand for a variety of commodities and services outside the CBA area. 2). Industrial Location Theory as defined by German economist Alfred Weber is a theory that looks at how businesses will seek to locate to areas where the cost of transportation, labor, and raw materials of the final product are at a minimum and the expected demand for that

The Effects Of Parenting On Education In Lilongwe Education Essay Free Essays

Birds are creatures that love and care for their immature 1s really much. Get downing from the clip a bird lays eggs ; it takes good attention of its immature 1s and protects them from any danger. As if that is non plenty, when it has hatched it fetches nutrient for the immature 1s. We will write a custom essay sample on The Effects Of Parenting On Education In Lilongwe Education Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now As they grow the bird female parent teaches the small 1s how to wing and besides to be independent to happen nutrient on their ain for themselves. It teaches them how to fly from danger and besides how to tie in with other birds. If birds get involved in the life of its immature 1s, protect and supply for its demands and learn them to be independent, what more human existences? Do parents acquire personally involved in the instruction of their kids? Or should the whole duty of instruction be left in the custodies of instructors? In Malawi, many factors affect how the pupils perform in school and the quality of instruction they are suppose to acquire in secondary schools. Peers, socioeconomical position, and background are some of the factors that affect public presentation and quality of instruction in secondary schools of Malawi. Due to these factors, pupils in secondary schools need a assisting manus in their instruction. Teachers play the function of learning and developing them but this research worker thinks that parents and defenders have a function to play every bit good. The duty of guaranting that the public presentation and quality of instruction is bettering in secondary schools of Lilongwe ; lies in the custodies of non merely the instructors but besides parents and defenders. This research is dedicated to happening out if parental engagement has an consequence on public presentation and quality of instruction in secondary schools of Lilongwe territory. Background The research worker bases her attack on the fact that a household does non merely have a map of bearing kids but besides child rise uping which include supplying for their basic demands and most of all get involved in their instruction. In Malawi, many households believe that the minute they have given birth to a kid, their occupation is done. Particularly in small towns, many households do non care about their kids ‘s instruction, whether they go to school or non. Education is a tool to success and it is really of import in the lives of kids and even the coevalss to come. A Brighter hereafter of kids is built through instruction ; it builds them to what they want to be in future. For parents to acquire personally involved in instruction brings great impact on instruction itself and the kids. Supplying school fees and necessities is non plenty, parents can make more than merely supplying these. If a household decides to educate their kids, they must acquire ready to be personal ly involved in every measure of the kids ‘s school. The inquiry is ; make households acquire involved in educating their kids? What difference does it do? Hypothesis The research worker thinks that personal engagement of parents has positively impacted instruction in secondary schools of Lilongwe by bettering its quality and how pupils perform. Problem Statement The duty of educating the kids does non wholly depend on instructors but besides parents. Lilongwe territory has secondary school instructors who guarantee that criterions of instruction are bettering now and so. On the other manus, there are besides parents who have kids making secondary school instruction. Parents work with the secondary school instructors in the undermentioned countries: school direction, look intoing the acquisition environment and execution of the course of study. Despite parents assisting instructors in the above countries ; the instruction criterions in most of the secondary schools in Lilongwe are traveling down every bit evidenced by the consequences of both the Junior Certificate of Education ( JCE ) and Malawi School Certificate of Education ( MSCE ) . The jobs ensuing from many pupils neglecting may include: most parents either populating in rural or urban countries of Lilongwe District do non care about the instruction of their kids. In every bit much as they provide demands for the kids, they do non personally acquire involved in it. However, it is the duty of parents to take note of how their kids are executing at school and parents should work manus in manus with the instructors in this exercising. This is why this survey seeks solicit positions from parents if they are involved in the instruction of their kids and if they are non, happening ways on how they can be involved. Purpose of Study This survey is dedicated to happening if engagement of parents has an consequence on the public presentation and quality of instruction in Lilongwe territory. Purposes and Aims The purpose is to measure how parenting impacts instruction in Lilongwe territory with the aims of happening out how parents get involved in instruction, detect jobs that hinder parental engagement on instruction and the impact that parental engagement has on instruction. Significance of the Study This research is traveling to assist pupils in secondary schools of Lilongwe territory ; parents and instructor to admit the impact that parental engagement has on instruction and how they can work together to back up acquisition, for the pupils to make better in school. Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW The research worker bases her attack on the fact that a household has maps of kid bearing, kid raising, and socialisation. Mrs. Banda, a lector at African Bible College defined socialisation as the procedure by which individuals get cognition, accomplishments and temperament that make them more or less incorporate members of society. A household has duty of tie ining new members to suit into the community that they are to be found. One of the communities that new members will be found in is a school and a preparation topographic point. George Knight ( 2006 ) in his book of Philosophy and Education said that. â€Å" The school is merely one society ‘s agents for acquisition, instruction, and preparation. The household, media, equal group, and church are some of other establishments that portion this duty. † ( p. 12 ) . The procedure by which a household takes a duty of tie ining new members into the community is called rearing. One of the of import sectors that parenting has a greater impact is instruction. Jeff white a professor at African Bible College while learning Philosophy of Education Class stated that instruction is a directed acquisition. The first topographic point where a new member of a household gets instruction is in a household through the procedure of parenting. Jay Kesler ( 1997 ) in his book called ‘Parents and Teenagers ‘ said that. â€Å" Properly understood, the household and school signifier a partnership. Schools become bad or less good when parents are non involved. † ( p.628 ) . A household plays a great function in the instruction of kids for they work manus in manus in tie ining new members into a peculiar society. Education is a tool to success and it is really of import in the lives of kids and even coevalss to come. A Brighter hereafter of kids is built through instruction ; it builds them to what they want to be in future. For parents to acquire personally involved in instruction makes it more of import and it has a great impact on instruction itself and even the kids, supplying accoutrements for school and supplying basic demands for the kids is non plenty, parents can make more than merely supplying necessities. If a household has decided to educate their kids, so they must acquire ready to be personally involved in it. The inquiry is ; make households acquire personally involved in educating their kids? What difference does it do? McCain and Mustard ( 1999 ) stated that school systems work with the kids who come into them. The quality of kids ‘s lives before get downing formal instruction greatly influences the sort of scholars they can be. Of class many elements go into doing a quality scholar. These include: healthy, early childhood experiences and place support. For illustration on early childhood psychosocial development experiences ; surveies that were done showed that positive early experiences and interactions are critical to fixing a quality scholar. A big survey that was conducted in 12 Latin American states found that attending at twenty-four hours attention coupled with higher degrees of parental engagement that includes parents to immature kids is associated with higher trial tonss and lower rates of grade repeat in primary school ( Willms, 2000 ) . Evidence from the Philippines, Srilanka and Turkey, has shown that kids who participate in early interaction plans do better in primary school th an those who do non profit from formal early kid plans and surveies from India, Morocco and Latin America demonstrated that disadvantaged kids benefit the most from such programmes ( UNICEF, 1998 ) . Furthermore, Ansu Datta ( 1984 ) stated that, the modern-day issues refering household and instructions are: parents in rural countries depend on household for endurance therefore it is difficult for them to be involved instruction. Parents in urban countries are busy at work and they find it hard to acquire involved in instruction ( Datta, 1984, p.215 ) . Therefore, this undertaking will look much at the manner in which parents get involved in instruction in Lilongwe territory and how each manner aid in bettering the quality of instruction. The decision of a recent study from southwest educational development research lab stated that when schools, households and community groups work together to back up acquisition, kids tend to make better in school and like school more. Another research of parent engagement over the decennary finds that, irrespective of household income or background, pupils with involved parents are likely to: Earn higher classs and trial tonss, and enroll in higher-level plans Be promoted, pass their categories and earn credits Attend school on a regular basis Have better societal accomplishments, show improved behavior, and adapt good to school and Alumnus and travel on to post secondary instruction ( Henderson A ; Mapp, 2002, p. 103 ) On the other manus, other researches on parental engagement on instruction show that schools must besides play a function in promoting parental engagement on instruction. Harmonizing to the research by The National Network of Partnership Schools, it shows that parents who are involved in their kids ‘s instruction do non make it right. As a consequence, their attempt to be involved in instruction is nonmeaningful since it does non do any difference on the quality of instruction and on the public presentation of the pupils. Therefore, they suggested a model of six types of parental engagement that schools can utilize to steer their attempts. It says schools can: aid households with parenting and child-rearing accomplishments Communicate with households about school plans and pupils advancement and demands Work to better enlisting preparation, and agendas to affect households as voluntaries in school activities Encourage households to be involved in larning activities at place Include parents as participants in of import school determinations and the community ( Epstein, 2001 ) Ramirez Laura ( 2009 ) in his book of Children Native American Wisdom and Parenting recognized the importance of parental engagement and its effects on instruction. Nevertheless, Ramirez thought that there are some grounds that hinder parents to efficaciously acquire involved in their kids ‘s instruction. She states that, â€Å" aˆÂ ¦Another ground your kids might non see the demand for you to be involved in his/her instruction is because you are busy with calling and other day-to-day jobs or go toing the place. You do n’t recognize that does non run into the attending demand of the kids, † ( Ramirez, 2009, p.23 ) . Any attending that parents may give towards their kids ‘s instruction has a great consequence. THE EFFECTS OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT ON CHILDREN ‘S HOMEWORK Dobson James ( 1979 ) in his book ‘ The Strong Willed Child ‘ gives and illustration of a kid that parental engagement became of aid to him after her female parent neglected her that chance for some clip. Dobson writes that, â€Å" †¦ During the conversation bonnie reveals that she does n’t wish school anyhow, and she would instead remain place and drama. † As the narrative continues Bonnie ‘s female parent decided to assist with Bonnies ‘s prep and any school work that was supposed to be done at place. After that Bonnie public presentation at school improved and this is what Bonnie said, â€Å" †¦ . school is fun and if offers to assist me make my prep every twenty-four hours, I will remain in school. † ( Dobson, 1979, Pp.167-170 ) . The smallest attending that parents may offer to their kids ‘s instruction, counts a batch towards the attitude that the kids will hold for school. THE EFFECTS OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN THE CHILDREN ‘S SCHOOL ACTIVITIES AND MEETINGS Furthermore, the engagement of parents in school activities and meetings are besides of import because it shows how much they are concerned with their kids ‘s instruction and how they perform at school. Phillips, Wiener A ; Haring ( 1965 ) in the book ‘Discipline, Achievement and Mental Health ‘ provinces that the demand to work with parents is normally considered cardinal to the betterment of the kid ‘s behavior from the classroom-or clinic, medical, youth organisation, or any other-point of position. Parents may change widely in their grade of penetration, intelligence, motive, or amenability, but they have far more immediate uninterrupted impact on the kid ‘s life than anyone else. They can non be ignored in the effectual solution of the job any longer than in its diagnosing. On the whole we have found parents to be sensible and effectual helpers to the instructor in work outing schoolroom jobs, merely as Psychotherapists normally find them indispens able participants in the intervention procedure. ( Phillips, Wiener A ; Haring, 1965, Pp. 116-117 ) . Significance OF PARENTS ‘ INVOLVEMENT IN PROVIDING SCHOOL ACCESSORIES TO THEIR CHILDREN Supplying for the kids ‘s accoutrements for school is one manner of parents acquiring involved in the instruction. As stated above that a household does non merely have a function of bearing kids but besides taking attention of them. Supplying for their demands is one manner of taking attention of them and portion of household direction and this has an consequence on instruction. Santrock John ( 2004 ) in his book of Educational Psychology states that, â€Å" Research workers have found that household direction patterns are positively related to pupils ‘ class and ego duty, and negatively to school-related jobs. † Furthermore, Santrock states that, â€Å" Even though parents typically spend less clip with their kids as through simple and secondary school, they continue to hold a strong influence on kids ‘s development by supplying for their demands. Parents besides influence whether kids take part in such activities as athleticss, music and other activities by the extent to which they sign up their kids to such activities and promote their engagement. † ( Santrock, 2004, Pp. 84-85 ) . Despite parents being involved in assorted ways as stated above, but Santrock ( 2004 ) continues to state that, although kids grow up in diverse households, in virtually every household parents play an of import function in back uping and exciting kids ‘s academic accomplishment and attitude towards school. The value parents topographic point on instruction can intend the difference in whether kids do good in school. Experienced instructors know the importance of acquiring parents involved in kids ‘s instruction. All parents, even those with considerable instruction, need annually counsel from instructors in how to stay productiveness involved in their kids ‘s instruction. ( Santrock, 2004, p. 84 ) . One research on Parental Involvement on instruction ( 2004 ) concluded that about all parents want their kids to win in school, but need clear and utile information from their kids ‘s instructors and from other schools and territory leaders in order to assist their kids develop their full potency. For illustration, sometimes parents inquire their kid, â€Å" how was school today? † We know that may stop with the kid reacting â€Å" all right † or â€Å" Okay † and non much more. Parents should be guided, alternatively, to inquire their kid, â€Å" Would you read to me something you wrote today? † or â€Å" could you demo me something you learned in math today? † ( Anguiano, 2004, P, 89 ) . Santrock in contrasting the survey made by 16,000 pupils stated that, â€Å" The pupils were more likely to acquire ‘As ‘ and less likely to reiterate a class or be expelled if both parents were extremely involved in their schooling ( National Center for Educational Statistics, 1997 ) . In this survey, high engagement was defined as the parent engagement in three or four of the followers: school meetings, a instructor conference, a category meeting, or volunteering. Other surveies have found that pupils ‘ classs and academic accomplishment are linked to parental engagement ( Epstein, 2005 ; Sheldon A ; Epstein, 2005 ) . How to cite The Effects Of Parenting On Education In Lilongwe Education Essay, Essay examples

The Show free essay sample

Awesome! Thats the only word that ican even possibly start to describe them. Ive only seen them live once, and they were clear across on the other side of Giants Stadium. I can still remember that day like it was yesterday. It was June 15, 1992. It was one of the most beautiful afternoons I had ever seen. We left for the stadium around 3 oclock, arriving 45 minutes later. The parking lot was teeming with VW buses and all sorts of people. It was amazing, as if we had been magically transported back a few decades. We decided to walk around the overcrowded parking lot for a while, amazed at the sight of all these long-haired hippies in tie-dyes. I think they were the nicest people I ever met. Each one was different, but in some way the same. After an hour of walking around, talking with a variety of people and buying some things, we decided it was time to go in. We will write a custom essay sample on The Show or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When we got to the gate, we were searched for any illegal substances we might have had. Making our ascent to the top of the stadium I could feel the excitement building inside me. I just had to scream. I received quite a response as others screamed in return. We arrived at our designated section, and decided to rest a while before the concert actually began. The opening act, The Steve Miller Band, was already playing. They were all right, but I knew the real show would start in just a little while. The Steve Miller band had just finished playing when it started to get dark. All the lights in the stadium went out except for the purple lights behind the stage. Then they came on, but it was so dark I couldnt see anything, except his gray hair in the light. Then in a sudden burst, all the spotlights came on, and the Grateful Dead began to play. They opened with Hell in a Bucket, and Jerry Garcia was incredible. The way his hands seemed to just glide over the fretboard of his guitar. It w as my first show, so it must have seemed better than it actually was, but they sounded as though they were playing better than I had ever heard. They finished the unusually short, six-song first set with the superb Bird Song. After their break, they started with Box Of Rain. They went on to play Throwing Stones, Not Fade Away, Standing on the Moon, and a surprising Terrapin Station that was unreal. After the show we found our way back to the parking lot. For that brief period of time I forgot all the problems I had. It was peaceful and euphoric. I was detached from the everyday world for one small instant, but now it all started coming back into focus. All my problems came rushing back at the same time. Ill never forget the night of my first Dead show, and only hopes of someday returning to that grateful place fill my head. n

Breaking Style

Breaking Style Breaking Style Breaking Style By Mark Nichol DailyWritingTips.com readers frequently email a message or write a comment in which they disagree with me (usually but not always respectfully) about something I’ve written. Occasionally, a reader has misunderstood me. Now and then, I’ve been unclear or I’ve made a mistake. Sometimes, the issue is of a difference between the recommendations of one style guide and another. Regardless, sometimes readers tell me that they are going to do something their way regardless of the â€Å"rules.† Writing (and editing) is both an art and a science, and the guidelines about producing prose are somewhat amorphous, for various reasons. As I mentioned, there’s more than one kind of style: Some writing and editing guides call for serial commas (a, b, and c), for example, while others recommend omitting serial commas (a, b and c) unless they’re necessary for clarity. There’s also a degree of flexibility: Introductory phrases should generally be separated from the main clause of the sentence by a comma (for example, as in â€Å"When the council met again the next day, the mood was somber†), but short phrases are sometimes given a pass (for example, as in â€Å"In effect it acts like a catalyst†). In some cases, the flexibility is a matter of formality: Contractions (such as can’t in place of cannot) are rare in academic prose but ubiquitous in colloquial writing, for example, and both extremes are intrinsically valid. But one thing I always emphasize when readers disagree with my advice is this: If you are writing for your own pleasure, or if you self-publish (whether in print or online), you are the final authority and may choose which rules to follow and which to flout (though consider that, if you actually want other people to read what you write, with great power comes great responsibility). But if you intend for your writing to be mediated if you are submitting it for publication on a website, in a periodical, or in a book you are generally expected to abide with a set of guidelines about grammar, syntax, usage, punctuation, and other issues of style. Exceptions exist, of course and they’re called style breaks, because they break with the standards for style. For example, one book I copyedited was a second edition of a guide to herbs. The author had (erroneously, according to prevailing style) capitalized all the plant names and made other editorial decisions that I thought diminished the book’s authoritativeness, so I lowercased the names and made other style changes. When I received a complimentary copy of the published new edition from the publisher, I noticed that the plant names were capitalized, as before. Apparently, the author had felt strongly about retaining the capitalization and had asked that it be restored (or had done so himself while reviewing the edited manuscript). I should have queried the publisher’s project editor before making such a comprehensive editorial decision, but I am glad that the author did not name me on the acknowledgments page. The decision about whether to allow such profligate capitalization is for the publisher to make, but although most readers may not notice or are unlikely to realize or care that lowercase style is the norm for such usage it looks amateurish, especially when hundreds of references to dozens of herbs appear throughout the book. More recently, an editor for a company that publishes commemorative books for professional sports teams told me to honor a style break for references to sports scores when I edit manuscripts. Normally, a score is set off from the rest of the sentence, as in â€Å"The 49ers beat the Raiders, 28–21, before a sellout crowd,† but I was asked to preserve the omission of commas in such constructions. This type of change is innocuous and nearly invisible, and it happens often. The copy editor simply notes the deviation from the norm on a style sheet, a record of variations in spelling, punctuation, and the like, and other editors involved in the project note and preserve the style break. Feel free to break style in self-published writing or to request that deviations from style be honored when you submit content for publication. But in either case, have a good reason for doing so, or be prepared to accept with good grace a denial of your request. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Program vs. Programme55 Boxing Idioms"To Tide You Over"

Cognitive Dissonance Definition and Examples

Cognitive Dissonance Definition and Examples Psychologist Leon Festinger first described the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. According to Festinger,  cognitive dissonance  occurs when people’s thoughts and feelings are inconsistent with their behavior, which results in an uncomfortable, disharmonious feeling. Examples of such inconsistencies or dissonance could include someone who litters despite caring about the environment, someone who tells a lie despite valuing honesty, or someone who makes an extravagant purchase, but believes in frugality. Experiencing cognitive dissonance can lead people to try to reduce their feelings of discomfort - sometimes in surprising or unexpected ways. Because the experience of dissonance is so uncomfortable, people are highly motivated to try to reduce their dissonance. Festinger goes as far as to propose  that reducing dissonance is a fundamental need: a person who experiences dissonance will try to reduce this feeling in much the same way that a person who feels hungry is compelled to eat. According to psychologists, our actions are likely to produce a higher amount of dissonance if they involve the  way that we see ourselves and we subsequently have trouble justifying why our actions didn’t match our beliefs. For example, since individuals typically want to see themselves as ethical people, acting unethically would produce higher levels of dissonance. Imagine someone paid you $500 to tell a small lie to someone. The average person probably wouldn’t fault you for telling the lie- $500 is a lot of money and for most people would probably be enough to justify a relatively inconsequential lie. However, if you were paid only a couple of dollars, you might have more trouble justifying your lie, and feel less comfortable about doing so. How Cognitive Dissonance Affects Behavior In 1959, Festinger and his colleague James Carlsmith published an influential study showing that cognitive dissonance can affect behavior in unexpected ways. In this study, research participants were asked to spend an hour completing boring tasks (for example, repeatedly loading spools onto a tray). After the tasks were over, some of the participants were told that there were two versions of the study: in one (the version the participant had been in), the participant was not told anything about the study beforehand; in the other, the participant was told that the study was interesting and enjoyable. The researcher told the participant that the next study session was about to start, and that they needed someone to tell the next participant that the study would be enjoyable. They then asked the participant to tell the next participant that the study was interesting (which would have meant lying to the next participant, since the study had been designed to be boring). Some participants were offered $1 to do this, while others were offered $20 (since this study was conducted over 50 years ago, this would have been a lot of money to participants). In actuality, there was no â€Å"other version† of the study in which participants were led to believe the tasks were fun and interesting- when participants told the â€Å"other participant† that the study was fun, they were actually (unknown to them) speaking to a member of the research staff. Festinger and Carlsmith wanted to create a feeling of dissonance in participants- in this case, their belief (that lying should be avoided) is at odds with their action (they just lied to someone). After telling the lie, the crucial part of the study began. Another person (who appeared to not be part of the original study) then asked participants to report on how interesting the study actually was. Results of Festinger and Carlsmiths Study For participants who were not asked to lie, and for participants who lied in exchange for $20, they tended to report that the study indeed wasn’t very interesting. After all, participants who had told a lie for $20 felt that they could justify the lie because they were paid relatively well (in other words, receiving the large sum of money reduced their feelings of dissonance). However, participants who were only paid $1 had more trouble justifying their actions to themselves- they didn’t want to admit to themselves that they told a lie over such a small amount of money. Consequently, participants in this group ended up reducing the dissonance they felt another way- by reporting that the study had indeed been interesting. In other words, it appears that participants reduced the dissonance they felt by deciding that they hadn’t lied when they said the study was enjoyable and that they really had liked the study. Festinger and Carlsmith’s study has an important legacy: it suggests that, sometimes, when people are asked to act in a certain way, they may change their attitude to match the behavior they just engaged in. While we often think that our actions stem from our beliefs, Festinger and Carlsmith suggest that it can be the other way around: our actions can influence what we believe. Culture and Cognitive Dissonance In recent years, psychologists have pointed out that many psychology studies recruit participants from Western countries (North America and Europe) and that doing so neglects the experience of people who live in non-Western cultures. In fact, psychologists who study  cultural psychology  have found that many phenomena that were once assumed to be universal may actually be unique to Western countries. What about cognitive dissonance? Do people from non-Western cultures experience cognitive dissonance as well? Research seems to suggest that people from non-Western cultures do experience cognitive dissonance, but that the  contexts  that lead to feelings of dissonance might differ depending on cultural norms and values. For example, in a  study  conducted by Etsuko Hoshino-Browne and her colleagues, the researchers found that European Canadian participants experienced greater levels of dissonance when they made a decision for themselves, while Japanese participants were more likely to experience dissonance when they were responsible for making a decision for a friend. In other words, it seems that everyone does experience dissonance from time to time- but what causes dissonance for one person might not for someone else. Reducing Cognitive Dissonance According to  Festinger, we can work to reduce the dissonance we feel in several different ways. Changing Behavior One of the simplest ways to address dissonance is to change one’s behavior. For example,  Festinger explains  that a smoker might cope with the discrepancy between their knowledge (that smoking is bad) and their behavior (that they smoke) by quitting. Changing the Environment Sometimes people can reduce dissonance by changing things in their environment- in particular, in their social environment. For example, someone who smokes might surround themselves with other people who smoke instead of with people who have disapproving attitudes about cigarettes. In others words, people sometimes cope with feelings of dissonance by surrounding themselves in â€Å"echo chambers† where their opinions are supported and validated by others. Seeking Out New Information People can also address feelings of dissonance by processing information in a  biased way: they may look for new information that supports their current actions, and they might limit their exposure to information that would make them feel greater levels of dissonance. For example, a coffee drinker might look for research on the benefits of coffee drinking, and avoid reading studies that suggest coffee might have negative effects. Sources Festinger, Leon.  A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.  Stanford University Press, 1957.  https://books.google.com/books?isbn0804709114Festinger, Leon, and James M. Carlsmith. â€Å"Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance.†Ã‚  The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology  58.2 (1959): 203-210.  http://web.mit.edu/curhan/www/docs/Articles/15341_Readings/Motivation/Festinger_Carlsmith_1959_Cognitive_consequences_of_forced_compliance.pdfFiske, Susan T., and Shelley E. Taylor.  Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. McGraw-Hill, 2008.  https://books.google.com/books?id7qPUDAAAQBAJdqfisketaylorsocialcognitionlrGilovich, Thomas, Dacher Keltner, and Richard E. Nisbett.  Social Psychology. 1st edition, W.W. Norton Company, 2006.  https://books.google.com/books?isbn0393913236Hoshino-Browne, Etsuko, et al. â€Å"On the Cultural Guises of Cognitive Dissonance: The Case of Easterners and Westerners.†Ã‚  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  89.3 (2 005): 294-310.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7517343_On_the_Cultural_Guises_of_Cognitive_Dissonance_The_Case_of_Easterners_and_Westerners White, Lawrence. â€Å"Is Cognitive Dissonance Universal?†.  Psychology Today Blog  (2013, Jun. 28).  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/culture-conscious/201306/is-cognitive-dissonance-universal